Cite this Email this Add to favourites Print this page. You must be logged in to Tag Records. In the Library Request this item to view in the Library's reading rooms using your library card. Details Collect From Order a copy Copyright or permission restrictions may apply. We will contact you if necessary. To learn more about Copies Direct watch this short online video. Need Help? How do I find a book? Can I borrow this item? Fill in the form below! Alternatively, you can call us on 02 if you have any questions or email us directly at info chamberswhyte.
Close menu. Business Cards. Flat Cards. Folded Cards. Saddle Stitched Books. Perfect Bound Books. Wire Bound Books.
Promo Items. Our Catalogue. Rectangle Square Round. Pull Up Banners. Wind Flags. A num- technology also apply to that of research me- ber of small group meetings were convened to thods and techniques. In making available the Guidelines as In addition to individual reviews and advice MAB Technical Notes 5, Unesco and ICSU hope from many scientists, the draft document was to encourage the inclusion of perception reviewed at an international workshop on me- studies as an integral part of interdisci- thods and interpretation of environmental per- plinary research on man-biosphere relations ception research, sponsored by the MAB Nation- and ecosystem management.
Another aim is to al Committees of Canada, United States and promote the exchange and dissemination of in- Mexico, and held at the University of Victoria, formation among scientists working on environ- B.
The present Guide- mental perception problems in different cul- lines is the result of this process of con- tural settings and geographic regions. In this sultation, review and refinement. Its main respect, a detachable questionnaire on the me- purpose is to provide an elaboration of the thods and techniques described in the Guide- ideas involved in the perception approach, to lines has been included to solicit the con- describe methods and techniques of research, crete comments and suggestions of research and to discuss and evaluate their requirements workers in the field.
In the light of the and suitability for field research in the MAB responses to this questionnaire the Guide- context. The views expressed by her refer to this document in the formative or in this publication are not necessarily shared preparatory stages of research design. Two cautionary notes must, however, be made. Environmental perception research Basic approaches.
Ask ing questions Projective techniques and other specialized ways of asking questions. Listening, recording and coding Selection of research variables Criteria for selection of methods In this Technical Note, I have tried to bring Ian Burton, Peter Jacobs, Robert Kates and together methods and techniques that have been Philip Porter, whose thoughtful advice has developed in many different disciplines, and improved the manuscript both in detail and to evaluate them for use in the field in wide- in reorganization of some sections.
I am grate- ly differing environmental and cultural set. Throughout the work, I have grown in- The Guidelines has received the rare ben- creasingly aware of the isolation of differ- efit of a practical comparative field testing ent disciplinary approaches from one another by over twenty-five participants from some in their testing of techniques and concepts.
The workshop was sponsored by techniques can survive. In general, highly the MAB National Committees of Canada, Mexico, structured techniques were not included, eith- and the United States of America and was sup- er because they impose the researcher's view ported by the Canadian International Devel- too heavily on the data or because they can- opment Research Centre IDRC , Unesco and the not be used outside the cultural setting in Canadian and United States National Commis- which they were first developed.
The evalua- sions for Unesco. To the sponsors and par- tion of available techniques revealed a clear ticipants of the workshop, I should like to need to develop new field techniques and re- record my thanks for the help and insight pro- search instruments that can be used in more vided by their efforts in the field and around than one cultural context.
The participants were: In bringing together the material included M. Maini Canada , E. USSR , A. Their help is grate- Estela Zamora Philippines. A report on the fully acknowledged here together with my apol- workshop is being prepared and will be pub- ologies for not being able to include every- lished in by Canada-MAB.
Full citations are given the University of Toronto which has provided in the appropriate places in the text, togeth- two valued resources - research time and a er with the relevant entry in the bibliography. It is hoped that the tasks of research and editorial assistant these collaborative efforts may serve to stim- in collecting material, typing and editing ulate interest in environmental perception the manuscript, and drafting the diagrams, studies and their implementation in MAB field whilst remaining always cheerful.
Thanks are also due to the following in- dividuals and publishers for permission to reproduce copyright material: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co. Dollard, Faber and Faber Ltd. The view from the inside of the environment is seen as a major force may be that of any individual, of a local com- in shaping that environment through the ac- munity, or even of a whole rural population. Man's The scale is less important than the relation- perception of the environment is considered ship between those on the inside, and those so fundamental that it becomes the main point traditionally on the outside.
The inside view of departure for any analysis of man-environ- is characterized by familiarity and long ex- ment relations. It is seen as personal- relations recognizes that for each objective ized and subjective.
In comparison, the out- element and relationship in the biosphere, side view becomes associated with development, there are many perceived elements and rela- action and objectivity against internal tra- tionships as seen and understood by different dition and resistance to rapid change. Man It is where these two ends of the spectrum reaches decisions and takes action within the come up against one another in a conflict of framework of his perceived sets of elements interest over resource use - for example, in a and links rather than any externally defined conflict between the local community and na- "objective set".
Within any given time frame tional planners - that the differences in per- or culture, scientific knowledge of the day ceptions between the two groups, and the need may also be viewed as more formalized and to understand both within the same analytical rigorous sets of perceived environmental el- framework, become highlighted and of urgent, ements and relationships.
This is most easily practical importance. For the purposes of analysis and sphere relations. The two which are given decision-making , the present state of sci- here illustrate some of the advantages and entific knowledge of the environment is usu- some of the difficulties. In this sense, the environmental perception of an in- SoiZ erosion dividual or group may be brought more closely into line with scientific, "objective" under- Few areas demonstrate so graphically the standing by education and information.
Many of its nical Note emphasis is placed upon perception side slopes are ravaged by active gullies of physical or tangible parts of the bio- which remove the surface wholesale and leave sphere, including the works of man himself. Since the Spanish Conquest, an aver-. Set between the forested uplands and the agricultural valley floor, the area seems ]i a wasteland which only drastic soil conserva- tion measures could reverse. Few scientifically trained ex- perts would disagree with their general per- ception of the gullying as a problem but the view from inside the valley is different.
Gullies are seen not as a hazard but as a re- source. By directing the flow of the eroded material, Mixtec farmers can annually feed their fields with fertile soil and can, with cultivation of hill-top greater effort, extend their agricultural land by building new fields over a few years. Judi- calcareous layer cious use of gullying has enabled them to con- vert poor hill-top fields into rich alluvial farmland below, using the gullies to transport the soil Fig.
Thus before large-scale Gullies gullying began, the agricultural productivity of the valley area was less than it is today. Their experience of the highly fertile and erodible local depos- its, and their familiarity with the technical and social bases of controlling soil movement, are too particular to the Valley of Nochixt- t-- Organic material lan to be readily translated to other areas.
Thus the concept "gullies are good" is not part of the outside expert's portfolio. Caicareous layer endeque could he be expected to know that intermar- riage between the hill-top and valley bottom communities enables families to "move with Und lsturbed their soil" downvalley. Yanhultlan Beds The Valley of Nochixtlan is an unusual Redeposited Red material case; usually different groups agree that soil erosion is a problem but disagree about how to solve it.
This example is intended, however, to illustrate the importance of un- derstanding local perceptions of the environ- Figure 1. Kirkby But this is only the first, The rows of houses provide a close-knit so- important step. In the example of Nochixt- cial structure, based on long-residence and lan - as almost everywhere - both perceptions inter-marriage with its own institutions and of the environment are valid, within their.
Information, advice, goods and ser- own contexts. For the farmers in Nochixtlan, vices are shared and available when needed. For the government authorities con- people lose both the physical and social as- cerned with the area as a whole, gullies are pects of the support they had in their neigh- also a problem - not for those farms whose bourhood and grieve in much the same way as owners remain, but for the farms abandoned for a lost person Fried It is not easy by their urban-migrating owners and no longer to see how the planning dilemma might be receiving replenishment and protection from solved.
The evidence on clinical health ef- the gullies. Thus, the national "problem" is fects of moving people to new communities is that of urban migration and rural depopula- equivocal Freeman Several studies tion, which is a higher-order one, and which show increases in morbidity when people are is outside the scope of agricultural author- moved, especially among women who have lost ities and local communities.
But it is difficult to separate the therefore, to be contextual, i. The two are different context. In so doing, it becomes but one en- but linked planning problems. The perceptions of population densities: the planners have been mainly focussed on the the New Town Look is an appearance re- physical conditions of the slum areas with sulting from urban types of building in a their inadequate housing, poor sanitation, green rural setting.
It is a happy look. The new com- There is, however, one danger in this em- munities they design are more open and green phasis on a green setting for every house. Services such as shops, so- and planners have no responsibility. The cial centres, transport facilities and schools cause is the density laid down by the au- may lag several years behind the arrival of thorities. The New Towns will never be the new residents, but are eventually pro- towns in the sense in which Chipping Camp- vided.
The resulting looseness is diffi- cial and family disruption, and may even i-n- cult to master visually, and it has, in ad- crease health problems rather than solve them? It rows of tiny, old houses crowded together on also introduces the problems of criteria and streets with no trees or grass and overhung proof in situations that are ambiguous and con- by heavily polluted air.
The same area to the flicting. These problems are not unique to en- long-term resident means familiar places, en- vironmental perception research but they may crusted with significant memories, and reas- be said to be endemic to it, because ipso suring him of physical and social stability.
Thus the relative em- tal health" and "environmental quality" and phasis on communication and organizing pro- how to separate interacting factors. In terms cesses will increase in the research model of implementing the results of research, the of collective management. There are Mixtec farmers for whom gul- outside; lies are a problem; and there are urban res- 2.
Sim- 3. One of the roles of en- vironmental perceptions and systems of vironmental perception research in the MAB knowledge that are rapidly being lost in Programme is to foster such an approach on many rural areas; an international scale.
It remains the task signed to improve the rational use of natural of each researcher to be sensitive to the resources. Local perceptions of the environ- needs of policy-makers. Ultimately his re- ment provide a time frame that extends into search hypotheses, criteria, measured vari- the past; they are an active agent in organ- ables and results should be capable of being izing the system of resource use in practice; translated into action and generalized, if and for good or ill, they reflect the raw they are ever to be implemented beyond the material from which a more rational use of scope of his own research project.
They are the context of man-biosphere relations and both resource managers in that they use, and ecosystem management. The ultimate purpose thereby directly affect, the biosphere is to encourage organizers and planners of through their choices.
Their perceptions and national and international research projects choices can be modelled and empirically in- on man-biosphere relations and ecosystem vestigated in the same analytic framework management to include perception studies as for different levels of resource management. Some are more extractive in to do so. S,elf-study, or the proach to environmental perception that is design of methods to enable local people to oriented to both systems modelling and eco- gather information about themselves, is an system management choices it is hoped that important tool for creating scientific self- the Guidelines may encourage and facilitate awareness and local research capability.
The methods are summarized in a reference chart designed for easy location of the al- Design and scope ternatives described in this Technical Note see page This Technical Note is designed as a prac- tical document for use in the planning phases Relationship to environwentaZ perception of field investigations into man-biosphere research relations. It attempts both to structure the field of environmental perception and to sug- In the Guidelines "environmental perception" gest specific methods for analysis.
It is taken to include much more than parent after a survey of the literature individual sensory perception such as vision showed that no general frameworks had yet or hearing. This broad definition of percep- been developed. The frameworks suggested here tion is used in the MAB Programme Unesco are not, at least in their present form, ade- a and but the use of the term "per- quate for the field as a whole.
They have ception" in this way, whilst correctly ap- been selected as being most appropriate for plied in terms of everyday language, is more the MAB Programme rather than on their a akin to "cognition" in psychological frames priori theoretical validity.
Their merit lies of reference. The term "environmental percep- in the social science parallel to ecosystems tion" is therefore sometimes confused with modelling that the systems approach provides, the more rigorous and narrower concept of and in the perspective from the resource man- direct sensory perception as it is used in ager's position that a choice model gives.
It is an unfortunate situation, The adoption of a particular framework in- which can lead to problems of communication evitably leads to a rearrangement of the top- between psychologists and others in the field.
Some con- However, the term "environmental perception" cepts and studies become central while others to mean both sensory perception and cognition are considered to have only peripheral impor- is probably too well established to be tance. This selection process has occurred in changed now and in any case no generally ac- the Guidelines and thus some researchers' ceptable alternative is available. For this reason, and in consid- study is a loose confederation of research eration of the heterogenous nature of the interests which share a common orientation field, the advantages of offering a framework and philosophy rather than close disciplinary may seem debatable.
It was decided, however, origins. The substantive field of interest is that, although the boundaries of the frame- thus defined only at the most general level. This latter alternative chology and sociology. So far, the convergence would have been impractical in a document of of interests from these disciplines has not. The field has been characterized by the transferring of concepts from one focus of inquiry to an- other and the borrowing of methods between disciplines.
One major direction in this ex- change which is of particular relevance to environmental management at the governmental level is the transfer of ideas from individ- ual psychology, such as identity and role, to the behaviour of groups and larger organi- zations e. Katz and Kahn In a number of disciplines, the importance of individual and cultural perception of the environment for human behaviour began to be discussed in the s or even earlier.
But until the s there was little sense of impetus or cross fertilization of ideas. As a multidisciplinary field with some common research problems, environmental perception began to appear in the early s. These ideas soon led to a rapid development Figure 2. Pcsearch edfefmt in cnviro7mental per- of empirical investigations into environmen- ception based on Ihwseo Za, pp.
The the MAB Programme. For example, There is now available a selection of books work by psychologists and architects on the and review papers in English which serve as perception of the architectural environment good introductions to the field of environ- and its effect on behaviour in buildings has mental perception.
The following suggestions until very recently developed alongside, but cover only some of these, including the most having little interchange with, work on per- widely available. Goodey Figure 2 presents diagrammatically one has written a short and very readable view of the main research foci within environ- introduction to the literature.
Lowenthal mental perception ranging from those that are and Downs and Stea have brought almost developed to those that are identified, together papers by different authors which pro- but neglected. The methods and concepts em- vide useful sets of readings.
Two books with ployed in each of these sub-areas of environ- a stronger psychological emphasis are those. The first book is Burton , Burton, Kates and White , a more detailed collection of research pa- and White The last two are concerned pers and the second serves as a more easily with the perception and management of envi- assimilated introductory text.
Another book ronmental hazards. At least one journal is exemplifying the psychological approach to primarily concerned with the environmental environmental behaviour and its implication perception research field: Environment and for design and planning is that by Canter Rehavior.
Saarinen organizes the field In languages other than English, the lit- in terms of environmental scale from archi- erature is sparser, but the following are tectural space to urban and regional space available: Gehl in Danish; Hesselgren to the nation and the world.
Perception lit- in Swedish; Moles and Rohmer erature with a more environmental resource and Kates in French; and Eringis management focus includes Burton and Kates in Lithuanian. The number of techniques that have been de- veloped or borrowed for field study of envrl- ronmental perception has increased signifi- Observing cantly in the last ten years.
These tech- niques tend to have the aura of complexity and disciplinary specialization that is often confusing in new transdisciplinary research fields. It is important to note, therefore, that all field techniques are based on a com- bination of three main approaches: observing, listening and asking questions Fig. These methods are complementary and basic to all research in the field.
The variety of specialized techniques gives the researcher the misleading impres- sion that there is a wide range from which to choose. Figure 3 shows diagrammatically that "asking questions" represents the heav- iest concentration of specialized field tech- niques.
PrincipaZ methodoZogicaZ approaches perimental and statistical approaches to studying "subjective" material. This does not mean that well tried methods are not available for those who would observe and listen, but that methodological innovation ations see discussion on criteria for selec- and specialized techniques consist mainly of tion, pages In the second place, asking questions in different ways.
In is mutually enriching. Thus, when possible, it the first place, the best method is a func- is better to select techniques that are com- tion of the research objectives, the field plementary in that they provide cross-checks situation and the researcher.
These are and new information e. Figure 4 shows the relative proximity less prior structuring of the research ques- of some common field techniques to the re- tions by the researcher. Other methods more searcher, the respondent and the field situ- directly base the data on the concerns 'and ac- ation. Each of these three points - the re- tivities of those whose perceptions are being searcher with his own informal perspectives studied. Various methods of observation, ques- and more formalised research question, the tioning and listening cover a spectrum from respondent representing the individual data researcher-structured to "respondent-situ- point on aggregates of which data especially ation"- structured.
Different methods takes the lead role, and the more idiosyn- can be selected which provide for more or cratic, less statistically reliable, but of-. Field techniques in relation to the researcher, the respondent ad tke fieZd situation. These differences are typi- which make the respondents into field re- fied in the contrast between "surface surveys" searchers through self-study methods.
The and "in-depth case studies", although the two role of the researcher is therefore one step are not, and should not be, mutually exclu- removed from direct field data gathering; he sive approaches.
The many merits of the situ- becomes a part designer of materials for use ationally-open approach respondent or situ- by the local population, and a part trainer ation-structured are dependent, however, on of people to use them. The ficult path to draw guidelines for, or to methods are only briefly described and re- define ; searchers should therefore consult more de- - content analysis, either formal or infor- tailed explanations of their concepts and mal, of the unstructured data obtained, procedures before using them, in order to structure and interpret it.
Very few field research methods are sections devoted to methods: Proshansky, It- unobtrusive. Most incur the Heisenberg ef- telson and Rivlin and Ittelson et al. There are also numerous books avail- for the development of many techniques is able on research methods in the social sci- to minimize researcher impact on the obser- ences in general and in environmental behav- vations made. Misinforming people followed iour in particular. These include Festinger by debriefing afterwards telling subjects and Katz , Michelson , Moore about the real purpose of the experiment is , Moore and Golledge , Preiser a classic routine in psychological experi- , Selltiz et al.
Less directly, participant observa- and Anselm Chapters in these books tion seeks to minimize the difference be- dealing with particular methods will be tween the researcher and the researched in suggested in succeeding sections of this the eyes of the study group; projective Technical Note. As the above books are tests are then based on the rationale that largely concerned with quantitative methods, their ulterior purpose and design is not per- Filstead on qualitative approaches ceived by the respondent.
An applied, prob- towards "research as action" and are ex- lem-solving approach is emphasized in Ackoff, pressly designed to have an impact on those Gupta and Minas and Feyerabend writes forming part of the study. These methods are "against method" in Radney and Winokur It provides the can be structured according to three dimen- context in which methods are developed and sions Fig. High directly on environment or on human be- standards of observation are not easily ac- haviour in relation to it;.
P 1 Structured observations. Structured observations are designed to mea- sure the occurrence or interaction of speci- fied sets of variables that are isolated as IBehawour Unstructured far as possible by the researcher in his choice of observation points in space and time, and in his definition of categories in- to which the observations are placed.
Without detailed knowledge of the research aims and field situation, sampling and coding frames cannot be prescribed. This is why unstructured observation must come first, in the form of a pretesting or design stage. During the pre- testing, hypotheses can be generated and sel- ected, the observations can be designed in Structured Enwonrnent terms of which points, how many, and how of- ten, and coding sheets can be drawn up and tested for recording the observations.
The experimental design will dictate the neces- sary level of reliability of observed data. Unstructured observations are more dependent Figure 5. Three axes of' observation methods in on the qualities of the particular researcher environmental perception since there are fewer guides for him to fol- low and a larger area open to his own initia- tive and biases. The advantage of a less structured approach is that it better pre- serves the holistic nature of what is being observed - the stream of human behaviour and its complex interaction with the environment.
It is a particularly useful rigorous approach in which the effect of dis- technique in the pretesting stage of struc- crete variables is hidden in a matrix of the tured observations, and where ratings eval- "whole system". The use of several Thus the two approaches achieve different judges is widely practised in environmental types of analysis: the structured one tends perception studies because one is often deal- to emphasize the interaction of individual ing directly with "subjective" values and cer- factors and the unstructured one stresses sys- tain types of obvious biases can be reduced tem interrelationshins.
These distinctions simply by asking more than one person to judge are as important as the more commonly recog- the same data. The selection of individual oh- nized one that unstructured methods are more servers can be based on their roles as "ex- open to subjective interpretation through the perts" in a relevant area of knowledge or ex- observer's own perceptions and preconceptions. Thus the observers themselves become calibrated One way to reduce the subjectivity of an in- as measuring instruments.
This gives an idea of the range Teams including teachers, engineers, psy- of values error or standard deviation and chologists and architects visited twenty pri-.
For example, social in- dimensions of the school environment such as teraction in a market place will be more fre- thermal, visual, and noise levels Sommer quent on market day than other days in the Thermal comfort of the interior action events to observe than an empty resi- air temperature measured values dential street. Thermal environment design hours once a week for several months.
In studying water or plant use, for inside example, the researcher can either station Asswnption. In this example, no effort was follow a person or group and record exactly made to obtain ratings from the teachers and what is done throughout the day. This pro- pupils in the building. This would have added cedure has been followed for nomadic groups significantly to the value of the survey and where the need to move with the resource helped to validate the results.
It is also the best way to study the use of wild plants in diet Study units in direct observation since many of these are consumed en route and not brought hack to the home. There are many The study unit for observation will involve other situations where a similar sampling sampling in space and time. Observation points strategy is advantageous. This usually involves greater distance between is probably because it takes longer to carry data points than interviews.
Rarely will it out in the field than the average interview. However, in observation of be- to lack the benefit of just a few days' ob- haviour in particular, sampling strategy is servation with which to compare their res- often best designed with an eye to common ponses to hundreds of interviews. One bias of direct observation of behav- Random numbers may never place the water iour as a method is to emphasize "events" quality observer at the single oasis in a rather than "non-events" because discrete desert valley.
Landscape evaluation observation happens. Thus despite what was said ear- will take as long as the observation and rat- lier about selecting observation points where ing task requires - perhaps up to one hour there is most activity, the record of "noth- at a point.
Observation of human behaviour ing happening" can also be valuable data. Sometimes it is difficult or impossible fluence how people respond to an area. Res- - The significant visual elements can be iso- ponse to earthquakes or floods, for example, lated and scaled either in the field or is difficult to observe at the time because from photographs. Such obstacles ficiently culturally influenced for an ob- are not easily overcome, hence the necessity server's perceptions to be shared to some to recreate behavioural responses by asking degree by a relevant larger group "resi- questions or listening to respondents' nar- dents", "users", or "general public".
Similarly, behav- The first assumption is concerned with the iour that occurs very rarely in the life of validity of the measure, and the last with an individual such as during a serious ac- its reliability.
In other words, would people cident or gradually over a long period other than the researcher select the same fea- learning, some industrial diseases are less tures of the landscape as being diagnostic amenable to a direct observation approach. Landscape evaluation Whether or not these assumptions are rea- sonable can be determined by comparing two The sensory experiences [of landscape] are methods of landscape evaluation, both of which derived not from visual satisfaction alone use direct observation of the environment.
The first is a technique developed by Leopold The sounds of birds, running water, rust- to compare the aesthetic appeal of dif- ling trees, church bells, bustling city ferent river valleys in the United States to streets; the smells of earth, vegetation, aid the environmentalist to quantify his newly tarred roads; these can be power- judgements.
The second is a method to develop fully evocative of the 'genius loci' of a map of landscape quality to use as a re- country or town Fines Landscape is a re- scape eva2uation source which has an economic value and use- Method.
Forty-six factors were selected which fulness. Planners at all levels of government were considered relevant to landscape aesthet- are asked to identify priority landscapes and ics Table 1.
These were grouped into physi- areas as part of local and regiona land use cal factors e. Similarly, a visual analysis of land- Each of these factors was provided with a scape quality is often undertaken as one part 1 to 5 evaluation score for which verbal des- of a larger socio-economic and ecological criptions or numerical values or categories evaluation of an area.
The recent trend in were given by the author see Table 1. The ob- man-made projects and processes has encour- server completed the checklist of forty- aged efforts to provide scales by which land- six items without regard to whether he con- scape quality can be measured.
Thus the plan sidered evaluation number 5 as superior or to build a hydro-electric dam in Hell's Can- inferior to evaluation number 1. Ol 10 Drainclpe area sq. Sy 46 Misfits None Many. Z less than or equal to, I divided by. Table 1. Scales for emluation of Landscape factors reprinted with permission from LeopoZd For example, if two form, it is culture-bound and researcher- sites were classified as category 5 for ac- structured.
If used in other studies and in cessibility paved access , then each site other countries, the significant landscape would have been assigned a uniqueness ratio features would need to be chosen within the for accessibility of 0. The selection should sites. The uniqueness value was thus inde- also reflect a consensus of a representative pendent of the scales set up for each factor example of people, using similarity judgement in this example, paved access to wilderness.
When uniqueness ratios were obtained for The main assumption of the method - that each of the forty-six factors, the ratios for uniqueness is critical to landscape value - each site were added up to give a "total un- is probably less true for longer settled coun- iqueness ratio" for that site. Using these tries where typicality e. Similarly, the emphasis on natural ratio, the more unique the site. This total river features of the landscape is obviously ratio was objective in that it did not dis- less valid in other environments.
With appro- tinguish between aesthetically attractive or priate selection of landscape features and unattractive uniqueness. Example 2: E'irzes' method of landscape Using two such indices of "valley charac- c7 aha tion ter" and "river character", Leopold sought Yethod: development 0s scale. Leopold's main assumption is that each view in relation to the control view. Beyond judges provided a scale of values from 0 to this explicit rationale, there are several 32 which were then arranged in six categories: other assumptions that are implicit in the unsightly, undistinguished, pleasant, dis- method: tinguished, superb and spectacular Fig.
This technique was used to de- significance to society. It ected, twenty-three can be concerned with required one surveyor and one driver for 90 river characteristics. He was expected - "Uniqueness" can be additive to enable to choose an area of suitable size for each comparison of sites. He then selected his own observa- cally objective. In the East Sussex survey, about The setting out of the assumptions implicit two viewpoints per km2 were used. Some idea in Leopold's method indicates some of the of the field task involved will be gained main problems in using it.
CA 1 Lmvlond Lmdrcop Types Highland l. Countryside spoilt by wcossiva cluttw. Hi;h hills and moo. Flat unrolievad plains inc.
0コメント